Compiled by Roger Edwards
TORNADO HISTORY, CLIMATOLOGY & RECORDKEEPING
Ashley, W.S., 2007: Spatial and temporal analysis of tornado fatalities in the United States: 1880–2005. Wea. Forecasting, 22, 1214–1228.
Concannon, P.R., H.E. Brooks and C.A. Doswell III, 2000: Climatological risk of strong and violent tornadoes in the United States. Preprints, 2nd Conf. Environ. Applications, Amer. Meteor. Soc., Long Beach, CA.
Bluestein, H.B., 2009: The formation and early evolution of the Greensburg, Kansas, tornadic supercell on 4 May 2007. Wea. Forecasting, 24, 899–920.
Brooks, H.E., 2004: On the relationship of tornado path length and width to intensity. Wea. Forecasting, 19, 310–319.
——, C.A. Doswell III, and M. P. Kay, 2003: Climatological estimates of local daily tornado probability for the United States. Wea. Forecasting, 18, 626–640.
Cook, A.R., and J.T. Schaefer, 2008: The relation of El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) to winter tornado outbreaks. Mon. Wea. Rev., 136, 3121–3137.
Corfidi, S., S. Weiss, J. Kain, S. Corfidi, R. Rabin, and J. Levit, 2010: Revisiting the 3–4 April 1974 Super Outbreak of tornadoes. Wea. Forecasting, 25, 465–510.
——, and C. A. Doswell III, 2002: Deaths in the 3 May 1999 Oklahoma City tornado from a historical perspective. Wea. Forecasting, 17, 354–361.
Dean, A.R., 2010: An analysis of clustered tornado events. Preprints, 25th Conf. Severe Local Storms, Denver CO, P2.19.
Doswell, C. A. III, 2007: Small sample size and data quality issues illustrated using tornado occurrence data. Electronic J. Severe Storms Meteor., 2(5), 1–16.
——, 2007: Historical overview of severe convective storms research. Electronic J. Severe Storms Meteor., 2(1), 1–25.
——, R. Edwards, R.L. Thompson, J.A. Hart, and K.C. Crosbie, 2006: A simple and flexible method for ranking severe weather events. Wea. Forecasting, 21, 939–951.
——, and D. W. Burgess, 1988: On some issues of United States tornado climatology. Mon. Wea. Rev., 116, 495–501.
Dotzek, N., 2003: An updated estimate of tornado occurrence in Europe. Atmos. Res., 67–68, 153–161.
French, M.M., H.B. Bluestein, L.J. Wicker, D.C. Dowell, and M.R. Kramar, 2009: An example of the use of mobile, Doppler radar data for tornado verification. Wea. Forecasting, 24, 884–891.
Fujita, T.T., 1989: The Teton–Yellowstone tornado of 21 July 1987. Mon. Wea. Rev. , 117, 1913–1940.
——, 1987: U.S. Tornadoes, Part I: 70-year statistics. Satellite and Meteorology Research Paper, 218, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, 122 pp. NTIS PB 87-127742.
——, 1977: Anticyclonic tornadoes. Weatherwise, 30 (2), 51–64.
——, 1974: Jumbo tornado outbreak of 3 April 1974. Weatherwise, 27, 116–126.
——, 1966: Aerial survey of the Palm Sunday tornadoes of April 11, 1965. Satellite and Meteorology Research Paper, 49, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 35 pp.
——, D.L. Bradbury, and C.F. Van Thullenar, 1970: Palm Sunday tornadoes of April 11, 1965. Mon. Wea. Rev. , 98, 29–69.
Grazulis, T.P., 1993: Significant Tornadoes: 1680–1991. Environmental Films, St. Johnsbury VT, 1326 pp.
Kis, A. K. and J. M. Straka, 2010: Nocturnal tornado climatology. Wea. Forecasting, 25, 545–561.
Lemon, L.R. and M. Umscheid, 2008: The Greensburg, Kansas tornadic storm: A storm of extremes. Preprints, 24th Conf. on Severe Local Storms, Savannah, GA, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 2.4.
Ostuno, E.J., 2008: A case study in forensic meteorology: Investigating the 3 April 1956 tornadoes in southwest Lower Michigan. Electronic J. Severe Storms Meteor., 3 (1), 1–33.
Ray, P.S., P. Bieringer, X. Niu, and B. Whissel, 2003: An improved estimate of tornado occurrence in the central plains of the United States. Mon. Wea. Rev., 131, 1026–1031.
Schaefer, J.T., and C. Marzban, 2000: Tornadoes in the United States as related to the tropical Pacific sea surface temperature Preprints, 20th Conf. Severe Local Storms, Orlando FL.
——, and R. Edwards, 1999: The SPC tornado/severe thunderstorm database. Preprints, 11th Conf. on Applied Climatology, Dallas, TX, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 603–606.
——, and F.B. Tatom, 1998: The Relationship between El Niño, La Niña and United States Tornado Activity. Preprints, 19th Conf. Severe Local Storms, Minneapolis MN, 416–419.
Schneider, R.S., J.T. Schaefer, and H.E. Brooks, 2004: Tornado outbreak days: An updated and expanded climatology (1875–2003). Preprints, 22nd Conf. Severe Local Storms, Hyannis MA, P5.1.
——, H.E. Brooks, and J.T. Schaefer, 2004: Tornado outbreak day sequences: historic events and climatology (1875–2003). Preprints, 22nd Conf. Severe Local Storms, Hyannis MA, 12.1.
Shafer, C.M., and C.A. Doswell III, 2011: Using kernel density estimation to identify, rank, and classify severe weather outbreak events. Electronic J. Severe Storms Meteor., 6 (2), 1–28.
Speheger, D.A., C.A. Doswell III., and G.J. Stumpf, 2002: The tornadoes of 3 May 1999: Event verification in central Oklahoma and related issues. Wea. Forecasting, 17, 362–381.
Thompson, R.L., and R. Edwards, 2000: An overview of environmental conditions and forecast implications of the 3 May 1999 tornado outbreak. Wea. Forecasting, 15, 682–699.
——, and M.D. Vescio, 1998: The Destruction Potential Index — A method for comparing tornado days. Preprints, 19th Conf. Severe Local Storms, Amer. Meteor. Soc., Minneapolis, 280–282.
Verbout, S.M., H.E. Brooks, L.M. Leslie, and D.M. Schultz, 2006: Evolution of the U.S. tornado database: 1954–2003. Wea. Forecasting, 21, 86–93.
Weiss S.J., 1987: Some climatological aspects of forecasting tornadoes associated with tropical cyclones. Preprints, 17th Conf. Hurricanes and Tropical Meteor., Amer. Meteor. Soc., Miami, 160–163.
TORNADO & SUPERCELL FORECASTING
Banacos, P.C., and M.L. Ekster, 2010: The association of the elevated mixed layer with significant severe weather events in the northeastern United States. Wea. Forecasting, 25, 1082–1102.
Blanchard, D.O., 2011: Supercells in environments with atypical hodographs. Wea. Forecasting, 26, 1075–1083.
Bunkers, M.J., B.A. Klimowski, J.W. Zeitler, R.L. Thompson, and M.L. Weisman, 2000: Predicting supercell motion using a new hodograph technique. Wea. Forecasting, 15, 61–79.
——, M.R. Hjelmfelt, and P.L. Smith, 2006: An observational examination of long-lived supercells. Part I: Characteristics, evolution, and demise. Wea. Forecasting, 21, 673–688.
——, J.S. Johnson, L.J. Czepyha, J.M. Grzywacz, B.A. Klimowski, and M.R. Hjelmfelt, 2006: An observational examination of long-lived supercells. Part II: Environmental conditions and forecasting. Wea. Forecasting, 21, 689–714.
Burgess, D.W., R. J. Donaldson Jr., and P. R. Desrochers, 1993: Tornado detection and warning by radar. The Tornado: Its Structure, Dynamics, Prediction, and Hazards, Geophys. Monogr., No. 79, Amer. Geophys. Union, 203–221.
Craven, J.P., and H.E. Brooks, 2004: Baseline climatology of sounding derived parameters associated with deep, moist convection. Natl. Wea. Dig., 28, 13–24.
Davies, J.M, 2006: Tornadoes in environments with small helicity and/or high LCL heights. Wea. Forecasting, 21, 579–594.
——, 2006: Tornadoes with cold core 500-mb lows. Wea. Forecasting, 21, 1051–1062.
——, 2004: Estimations of CIN and LFC associated with tornadic and nontornadic supercells. Wea. Forecasting, 19, 714–726.
——, and R.H. Johns, 1993: Some wind and instability parameters associated with strong and violent tornadoes. Part I: Helicity and mean shear magnitudes. The Tornado: Its Structure, Dynamics, Prediction, and Hazards (C. Church et al., Eds.), Geophysical Monograph 79, Amer. Geophys. Union, 573–582.
Dean, A.R., and R.S. Schneider, 2008: Forecast challenges at the NWS Storm Prediction Center relating to the frequency of favorable severe storm environments. Preprints, 24th Conf. Severe Local Storms, Savannah GA, 9A.2.
Doswell, C. A. III, and D. M. Schultz, 2006: On the use of indices and parameters in forecasting severe storms. Electronic J. Severe Storms Meteor., 1(3), 1–22.
——, D. V. Baker, and C. A. Liles, 2002: Recognition of negative factors for severe weather potential: A case study. Wea. Forecasting, 17, 937–954.
——, S.J. Weiss and R.H. Johns (1993): Tornado forecasting: A review. The Tornado: Its Structure, Dynamics, Prediction, and Hazards (C. Church et al., Eds), Geophys. Monogr. No. 79, Amer. Geophys. Union, 557–571.
——, 1991: A Review for Forecasters on the Application of Hodographs to Forecasting Severe Thunderstorms
——, 1982: The operational meteorology of convective weather. Vol. I: Operational mesoanalysis. NOAA Tech. Memo. NWS NSSFC_5, available from the author.
——, 1985: The operational meteorology of convective weather. Vol. II: Storm-scale snalysis. NOAA Tech. Memo. ERL ESG-15, available from the author.
Duda, J.D., and W.A. Gallus, 2010: Spring and summer Midwestern severe weather reports in supercells compared to other morphologies. Wea. Forecasting, 25, 190–206.
Dunn, L.B., and S.V. Vasiloff, 2001: Tornadogenesis and operational considerations of the 11 August 1999 Salt Lake City tornado as seen from two different Doppler radars. Wea. Forecasting, 16, 377–398.
Edwards, R., S.F. Corfidi, R.L. Thompson, J.S. Evans, J.P. Craven, J.P. Racy, D.W. McCarthy and M.D. Vescio, 2002: Storm Prediction Center forecasting issues related to the 3 May 1999 tornado outbreak. Wea. Forecasting, 17, 544–558.
——, R.L. Thompson and J.G. LaDue, 2000: Initiation of storm A (3 May 1999) along a possible horizontal convective roll. Preprints, 20th Conf. on Severe Local Storms, Orlando, FL, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 60–63.
Esterheld, J.M. and D.J. Giuliano, 2008: Discriminating between tornadic and non-tornadic supercells: A new hodograph technique. Electronic J. Severe Storms Meteor., 3 (2), 1–50.
Fischer, A., and J. M. Davies, 2009: Significant nighttime tornadoes in the plains associated with relatively stable low-level conditions. Electronic J. Operational Meteor., 10 (4), 1–33.
Fujita, T.T., and D. Stiegler, 1985. Detailed analysis of the tornado outbreak in the Carolinas by using radar, satellite, and aerial survey data. Preprints, 14th Conf. on Severe Local Storms, Indianapolis, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 271–274.
Gonski, R.F., B.P. Woods and W.D. Korotky, 1989: The Raleigh tornado — 28 November 1988. An operational perspective. Preprints, 12th Conf. Wea. Analysis and Forecasting, Monterey CA, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 173–178.
Hales, J.E. and M.D. Vescio, 1996: The March 1994 Tornado Outbreak in the Southeast U.S. from an SPC Perspective. Preprints, 18th Conf. Severe Local Storms, San Francisco CA, 32–36.
Houston, A.L., R.L. Thompson, and R. Edwards, 2008: The optimal bulk wind differential depth and the utility of the upper-tropospheric storm-relative flow for forecasting supercells. Wea. Forecasting, 23, 825–837.
Johns, R.H., J.M. Davies, and P.W. Leftwich, 1993: Some wind and instability parameters associated with strong and violent tornadoes. Part II: Variations in the combinations of wind and instability parameters. The Tornado: Its Structure, Dynamics, Prediction and Hazards, Geophys. Mongr., No. 79, Amer. Geophys. Union, 583–590.
Kay, M.P., and H.E. Brooks, 2000: Verification of probabilistic severe storm forecasts at the SPC. Preprints, 20th Conf. on Severe Local Storms, Orlando, FL, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 285–288.
Keene, K.M., P.T. Schlatter, J.E. Hales, and H.E. Brooks, 2008: Evaluation of NWS watch and warning performance related to tornadic events. Preprints, 24th Conf. Severe Local Storms, Savannah, GA, Amer. Meteor. Soc., P3.19.
Lanicci, J.M., and T.T. Warner, 1991: A synoptic climatology of the elevated mixed-layer inversion over the southern Great Plains. Part I: Structure, dynamics and seasonal evolution. Wea. Forecasting, 6, 181–197.
——, and ——, 1991: A synoptic climatology of the elevated mixed-layer inversion over the southern Great Plains. Part II: The life cycle of the lid. Wea. Forecasting, 6, 198–213.
——, and ——, 1991: A synoptic climatology of the elevated mixed-layer inversion over the southern Great Plains. Part III: Relationship to severe-storms climatology. Wea. Forecasting, 6, 214–226.
Markowski, P.M., E.N. Rasmussen, and J.M. Straka, 1998: The occurrence of tornadoes in supercells interacting with boundaries during VORTEX-95. Wea. Forecasting, 13, 852–859.
Mead, C.M., and R.L. Thompson, 2011: Environmental characteristics associated with nocturnal significant-tornado events in the central and southern Great Plains. Electronic J. Severe Storms Meteor., 6 (6), 1–35.
Moller, A.R., C.A. Doswell III, M.P. Foster, and G.R. Woodall, 1994: The operational recognition of supercell thunderstorm environments and storm structures. Wea. Forecasting, 9, 327–347.
Ostby, F.P., 1999: Improved accuracy in severe storm forecasting by the Severe Local Storms Unit during the last 25 years: Then versus now. Wea. Forecasting, 14, 526–543.
Quoetone, E.M., D.A. Andra, Jr., and W.F. Bunting, 2000: Warning decision making process during the 3 May 1999 tornado outbreak. Preprints, 20th Conf. Severe Local Storms, Orlando FL, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 1–4.
Potvin, C.K., K.L. Elmore, and S.J. Weiss, 2010: Assessing the impacts of proximity sounding criteria on the climatology of significant tornado environments. Wea. Forecasting, 25, 921–930.
Ramsay, H. A., and C. A. Doswell III, 2005: A sensitivity study of hodograph-based methods for estimating supercell motion. Wea. Forecasting, 20, 954–970.
Rasmussen, E. N., 2003: Refined supercell and tornado forecast parameters. Wea. Forecasting, 18, 530–535.
——, and D.O. Blanchard, 1998: A baseline climatology of sounding-derived supercell and tornado forecast parameters. Wea. Forecasting, 13, 1148–1164.
——, E.M., and J. M. Straka, 1998: Variations in supercell morphology. Part I: Observations of the role of upper-level storm-relative flow. Mon. Wea. Rev., 126, 2406–2421.
Roebber, P.J., D.M. Schultz, and R. Romero, 2002: Synoptic regulation of the 3 May 1999 tornado outbreak. Wea. Forecasting, 17, 399–429.
Sanders, F., and C.A. Doswell III (1995): A case for detailed surface analysis. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 76, 505–521.
Shafer, C.M., C.A. Doswell III, L.M. Leslie, and M.B. Richman, 2010: On the use of areal coverage of parameters favorable for severe weather to discriminate major outbreaks. Electronic J. Severe Storms Meteor., 5 (7), 1–44.
——, A.E. Mercer, C.A. Doswell III, M.B. Richman, and L.M. Leslie, 2009: Evaluation of WRF forecasts of tornadic and nontornadic outbreaks when initialized with synoptic-scale input. Mon. Wea. Rev., 137, 1250–1271.
Spratt, S.M., D.W. Sharp, P. Welsh, A.C. Sandrik, F. Alsheimer and C. Paxton, 1997: A WSR-88D assessment of tropical cyclone outer rainband tornadoes. Wea. Forecasting, 12, 479–501.
Stensrud, D.J. and S.J. Weiss, 2002: Mesoscale model ensemble forecasts of the 3 May 1999 tornado outbreak. Wea. Forecasting, 17, 526–543.
Thompson, R.L, C.M. Mead and R. Edwards, 2007: Effective storm-relative helicity and bulk shear in supercell thunderstorm environments. Wea. Forecasting, 22, 102–115.
——, R. Edwards, J. A. Hart, K. L. Elmore, and P. Markowski, 2003: Close proximity soundings within supercell environments obtained from the Rapid Update Cycle. Wea. Forecasting, 18, 1243–1261.
——, and R. Edwards, 2000: An overview of environmental conditions and forecast implications of the 3 May 1999 tornado outbreak. Wea. Forecasting, 15, 682–699.
——, 1998: Eta model storm-relative winds associated with tornadic and nontornadic supercells. Wea. Forecasting, 13, 125–137.
Togstad, W.E., J.M. Davies, S.J. Corfidi, D.R. Bright, A.R. Dean, 2011: Conditional probability estimation for significant tornadoes based on Rapid Update Cycle (RUC) profiles. Wea. Forecasting, 26, 729–743.
Trapp, R.J., G.J. Stumpf, and K.L. Manross, 2005: A reassessment of the percentage of tornadic mesocyclones. Wea. Forecasting, 20, 680–687.
Wakimoto, R.M., and J.W. Wilson, 1989: Non-supercell tornadoes. Mon. Wea. Rev., 117, 1113–1140.
Weiss, S.J., 1992: Some aspects of forecasting severe thunderstorms during cool-season return-flow episodes. J. Appl. Meteor., 31, 964–981.
——, 1987: Some climatological aspects of forecasting tornadoes associated with tropical cyclones. Preprints, 17th Conf. Hurricanes and Tropical Meteor., Amer. Meteor. Soc., Miami, 160–163.
——, 1985: On the operational forecasting of tornadoes associated with tropical cyclones. Preprints, 14th Conf. Severe Local Storms, Indianapolis IN, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 293–296.
Young, G.S., and J.M. Fritsch, 1989: A proposal for general conventions in analysis of mesoscale boundaries. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 70, 1412–1421.
Zeitler, J.W., and M.J. Bunkers, 2005: Operational forecasting of supercell motion: Review and case studies using multiple datasets. Natl. Wea. Dig., 29 (1), 81–97.
TORNADOES IN TROPICAL CYCLONES
Baker, A.K., M.D. Parker, and M.D. Eastin, 2009: Environmental ingredients for supercells and tornadoes within Hurricane Ivan. Wea. Forecasting, 24, 223–244.
Curtis, L., 2004: Midlevel dry intrusions as a factor in tornado outbreaks associated with landfalling tropical cyclones from the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico. Wea. Forecasting, 19, 411–427.
Edwards, R., 2010: Tropical cyclone tornado records for the modernized NWS era. Preprints, 25th Conf. Severe Local Storms, Denver CO, P3.1.
——, and A.E. Pietrycha, 2006: Archetypes for surface baroclinic boundaries influencing tropical cyclone tornado occurrence. Preprints, 23rd Conf. Severe Local Storms, St. Louis MO, Amer. Meteor. Soc., P8.2 (CD-ROM).
——: Tornado production by exiting tropical cyclones. Preprints, 23rd Conf. Hurricanes and Tropical Meteor., Amer. Meteor. Soc., Dallas, 160–163.
Gentry, R.C., 1983: Genesis of tornadoes associated with hurricanes. Mon Wea. Rev., 111, 1793–1805.
Green, B.W., F. Zhang, and P.M. Markowski, 2011: Multiscale processes leading to supercells in the landfalling outer rainbands of Hurricane Katrina (2005). Wea. Forecasting, 26, 828–847.
Hill, E.L., W. Malkin, and W.A. Schulz Jr., 1966: Tornadoes associated with cyclones of tropical origin-practical features. J. Appl. Meteor., 5, 745–763.
Lee, W.-C., M.M. Bell, and K.E. Goodman Jr., 2008: Supercells and mesocyclones in the outer rainbands of Hurricane Katrina (2005). Geophys. Res. Lett., 35, L16803, doi:10.1029/2008GL034724.
McCaul, E.W., Jr., 1987: Observations of the Hurricane "Danny" tornado outbreak of 16 August 1985. Mon. Wea. Rev., 115, 1206–1223.
——, 1991: Buoyancy and shear characteristics of hurricane-tornado environments. Mon Wea. Rev., 119, 1954–1978.
—— and M.L. Weisman, 1996: Simulations of shallow supercell storms in landfalling hurricane environments. Mon. Wea. Rev., 124, 408–429.
Novlan, D.J., and W.M. Gray, 1974: Hurricane-spawned tornadoes. Mon Wea. Rev., 102, 476–488.
Orton, R., 1970: Tornadoes associated with Hurricane Beulah on September 19–23, 1967. Mon. Wea. Rev., 98, 541–547.
Pietrycha, A.E., and C.D. Hannon, 2002: Tornado distribution associated with Hurricane Floyd 1999. Preprints, 21st Conf. on Severe Local Storms, San Antonio, TX, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 619–622.
Rao, G.V., J.W. Scheck, R. Edwards, and J.T. Schaefer, 2004: Structures of mesocirculations producing tornadoes associated with Tropical Cyclone Frances (1998). Pure Appl. Geophys., 162, 1627–1641.
Sadowski, A., 1962: Tornadoes associated with Hurricane Carla, 1961. Mon. Wea. Rev., 90, 514–516.
Schneider, D., and S. Sharp, 2007: Radar signatures of tropical cyclone tornadoes in central North Carolina. Wea. Forecasting, 22, 278–286.
Schultz, L. A., and D. J. Cecil, 2009: Tropical cyclone tornadoes, 1950–2007. Mon. Wea. Rev., 137, 3471–3484.
Spratt, S.M., D.W. Sharp, P. Welsh, A.C. Sandrik, F. Alsheimer and C. Paxton, 1997: A WSR-88D assessment of tropical cyclone outer rainband tornadoes. Wea. Forecasting, 12, 479–501.
Suzuki, O., H. Niino, H. Ohno, and H. Nirasawa, 2000: Tornado-producing mini-supercells associated with Typhoon 9019. Mon. Wea. Rev., 128, 1868–1882.
Vescio, M.D., S.J. Weiss, and F.P. Ostby, 1995: Tornadoes associated with Tropical Storm Beryl. Preprints, 21st Conf. Hurricanes and Tropical Meteor., Amer. Meteor. Soc., Miami, 469–471.
Weiss, S.J., 1987: Some climatological aspects of forecasting tornadoes associated with tropical cyclones. Preprints, 17th Conf. Hurricanes and Tropical Meteor., Amer. Meteor. Soc., Miami, 160–163.
——, 1985: On the operational forecasting of tornadoes associated with tropical cyclones. Preprints, 14th Conf. Severe Local Storms, Indianapolis IN, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 293–296.
TORNADO DAMAGE AND CLASSIFICATION
Doswell, C.A. III, H.E. Brooks, and N. Dotzek, 2009: On the implementation of the enhanced Fujita scale in the USA. Atmos. Res., 93, 554–563.
——, and H.E. Brooks, 2002: Lessons learned from the damage produced by the tornadoes of 3 May 1999. Wea. Forecasting, 17, 611–618.
——, and D. W. Burgess, 1988: On some issues of United States tornado climatology. Mon. Wea. Rev., 116, 495–501.
Dotzek, N., 2009: Derivation of physically motivated wind speed scales. Atmos. Res., 93, 564–574.
Edwards, R., J.G. LaDue, J.T. Ferree, K.L. Scharfenberg, C. Maier, and W.L. Coulbourne, 2010: The enhanced Fujita scale: Past, present and future. Preprints, 25th Conf. Severe Local Storms, Denver, CO, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 4A.1.
——, 2003: Rating tornado damage: An exercise in subjectivity. Preprints, Symp. on F-Scale and Severe Weather Damage Assessment, Long Beach, CA, Amer. Meteor. Soc., P1.2.
Forbes, G. S., and R. M. Wakimoto, 1983: A concentrated outbreak of tornadoes, downbursts, and microbursts, and implications regarding vortex classification. Mon. Wea. Rev., 111, 220–235.
Fujita, T.T., 1981: Tornadoes and downbursts in the context of generalized planetary scales. J. Atmos. Sci., 38, 1511–1533
——, 1971: Proposed characterization of tornadoes and hurricanes by area and intensity. Satellite and Meteorology Research Paper, 91, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 42 pp.
——, 1966: Aerial survey of the Palm Sunday tornadoes of April 11, 1965. Satellite and Meteorology Research Paper, 49, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 35 pp.
——, and A. D. Pearson, 1973: Results of FPP classification of 1971 and 1972 tornadoes. Preprints, 8th Conf. Severe Local Storms, Denver CO, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 142–145.
Grazulis, T.P., 1993: Significant Tornadoes: 1680–1991. Environmental Films, St Johnsbury VT, 1326 pp.
Marshall, T.P., 2004: The enhanced Fujita (EF) scale. Preprints, 22nd Conf. on Severe Local Storms, Hyannis, MA, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 3B.2.
——, 2000: Tornado damage survey at Moore, Oklahoma. Wea. Forecasting, 17, 582–598.
Pan, K., P. Montpelier and M. Zadeh, 2002: Engineering observations of 3 May 1999 Oklahoma tornado damage. Wea. Forecasting, 17, 599–610.
Thompson, R.L., and M.D. Vescio, 1988. The Destruction Potential Index — a method for comparing tornado days. Preprints, 19th Conf. Severe Local Storms, Amer. Meteor. Soc., Minneapolis, 280–282.
Wurman, J., and C.R. Alexander, 2005: The 30 May 1998 Spencer, South Dakota, storm. Part II: Comparison of observed damage and radar-derived winds in the tornadoes. Mon. Wea. Rev., 133, 97–119.
Yuan, M., M. Dickens-Micozzi and M. A. Magsig, 2002: Analysis of tornado damage tracks from the 3 May tornado outbreak using multispectral satellite imagery. Wea. Forecasting, 17, 382–398.
TORNADO OBSERVATIONS, MEASUREMENT, SPOTTING AND CHASING
Bedard, A.J. Jr., and C. Ramzy, 1983: Surface meteorological observations in severe thunderstorms. Part I: design details of TOTO. J. Appl. Meteor., 22, 911–918.
Bluestein, H.B., 1999: A history of severe-storm-intercept field programs. Wea. Forecasting, 14, 558–577.
——, 1994: High-based funnel clouds in the Southern Plains. Mon. Wea. Rev., 122, 2631–2638.
——, 1988: Funnel clouds pendant from high-based cumulus clouds. Weather, 43, 220–221.
——, 1985: The formation of a "landspout" in a "broken-line" squall line in Oklahoma. Preprints, 14th Conf. Severe Local Storms, Indianapolis, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 267–270.
——, 1983: Surface meteorological observations in severe thunderstorms. Part II: Field experiments with TOTO. J. Climate Appl. Meteor., 22, 919–930.
——, and A.L. Pazmany, 2000: Mobile Doppler radar observations of a tornado near Verden, Oklahoma, on 3 May 1999. Preprints, 20th Conf. Severe Local Storms, Orlando FL, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 29–32.
Brady, R.H., and E.J. Szoke, 1988: The landspout — A common type of northeast Colorado tornado. Preprints, 15th Conf. Severe Local Storms, Baltimore MD, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 312–315.
Bunkers, M. J., and J. W. Stoppkotte, 2007: Documentation of a rare tornadic left-moving supercell. Electronic J. Severe Storms Meteor., 2(2), 1–22.
Burgess, D.W., M.A. Magsig, J. Wurman, D. C. Dowell and Y. Richardson, 2002: Radar observations of the 3 May 1999 Oklahoma ity tornado. Wea. Forecasting, 17, 456–471.
Cooley, J.R., 1978: Cold air funnel clouds. Mon. Wea. Rev., 106, 1368–1372.
Doswell, C.A. III, and D.W. Burgess, 1993: Tornadoes and tornadic storms: A review of conceptual models. The Tornado: Its Structure, Dynamics, Prediction and Hazards (C. Church, D. Burgess, C. Doswell, R. Davies-Jones, Eds.), Geophys. Monogr. 79, Amer. Geophys. Union, 161–172.
Dunn, L.B., and S.V. Vasiloff, 2001: Tornadogenesis and operational considerations of the 11 August 1999 Salt Lake City tornado as seen from two different Doppler radars. Wea. Forecasting, 16, 377–398.
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OTHER REFERENCES
American Meteorological Society (AMS), 2000: Glossary of Meteorology. 855 pp.